Licensing Rules 2004
TEACHERS OF SCIENCE
Standard #1: The teacher of science understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and the history and nature of science in order to create learning experiences that make these aspects of science meaningful for the student.
Performances
1. The teacher of science conveys his/her enthusiasm for learning science to all.
2. The teacher of science teaches the central concepts and processes of science in personally and socially relevant ways.
3. The teacher of science concentrates on teaching a few fundamental science concepts. (Refer to Appendix G.)
4. The teacher of science provides opportunities for students to explore the continuum of interactions in the natural world.
5. The teacher of science selects developmentally appropriate science concepts and processes for their instruction. (Refer to Appendix G.)
6. The teacher of science helps students build scientific knowledge and develop scientific habits of mind at the same time.
7. The teacher of science provides students with many and varied opportunities for asking questions, collecting data, using evidence to develop explanations, and communicating their ideas to others.
8. The teacher of science provides opportunities for student investigations that take place over extended periods of time.
9. The teacher of science models science habits of the mind in the classroom. (Refer to Appendix F.)
10. The teacher of science provides students with many opportunities to view science in its cultural and historical context by using examples from history and including scientists of both genders and all social and cultural groups.
11. The teacher of science uses science teaching materials that portray the dynamic history and nature of science.
12. The teacher of science provides students with experiences for seeing science as a process for extending understanding, not as unalterable truth.
13. The teacher of science uses technology appropriately and supports the use of technology among students.
Knowledge
Central Concepts:
1. The teacher of science possesses a knowledge and understanding of science appropriate to the developmental level and subject area needs of students. (Refer to Appendix A.)
2. The teacher of science understands the unifying concepts and processes of science. (Refer to Appendix B.)
3. The teacher of science understands the fundamental concepts and major principles of Physical, Life, and Earth and Space science and the interconnections between these disciplines. (Refer to Appendix C.)
4. The teacher of science understands the abilities of technological design and the relationship between science and technology. (Refer to Appendix D.)
5. The teacher of science understands the interrelationship of personal and social perspectives in science. (Refer to Appendix E.)
6. The teacher of science understands the habits of mind particular to science. (Refer to Appendix F.)
7. The teacher of science knows which science concepts and processes are appropriate at the developmental level at which they teach. (Refer to Appendix G.)
Tools of Inquiry:
8. The teacher of science understands how to identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations.
9. The teacher of science understands how to design and conduct scientific investigations.
10. The teacher of science understands how to use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.
11. The teacher of science knows how to interpret the results of an investigation and make sense of findings using logic and evidence.
12. The teacher of science understands how to recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
13. The teacher of science understands how to communicate and defend a scientific argument.
14. The teacher of science knows when, where, and how to access needed information.
History of Science:
15. The teacher of science knows that the history of science can help students build an understanding of the scientific enterprise.
16. The teacher of science recognizes that some episodes in the history of science have led to major changes in our view of the world.
17. The teacher of science knows that science often changes by small modifications in existing knowledge, but that new scientific ideas that lead to major changes in scientific thinking can be slow to be accepted.
18. The teacher of science knows that science has been practiced by different individuals in different cultures throughout history.
19. The teacher of science knows that individual scientists and teams of scientists have made significant contributions to our current understanding of scientific principles.
Nature of Science:
20. The teacher of science understands that science is a human endeavor, involving both genders and all social, cultural, and ethnic groups, in teams and alone, that relies on human qualities such as reasoning, insight, energy, skill, and creativity as well as scientific habits of mind such as intellectual honesty, skepticism, and openness to new ideas.
21. The teacher of science understands that scientists are influenced by societal, cultural, and personal beliefs.
22. The teacher of science understands that the scientific community plays an important role, through public reporting and peer review, in deciding what counts as significant questions and reasonable evidence.
23. The teacher of science knows that science is a way of knowing that involves devising the best possible explanations for phenomena in the natural world.
24. The teacher of science knows that scientific explanations are formulated and tested using observations, experiments, and/or theoretical models.
25. The teacher of science understands that scientists often differ with one another about the interpretation of the evidence or theory being considered, yet also understands that although scientists may disagree about explanations or evidence, they agree that critical evaluation of the results of scientific investigations, models, and explanations is an essential part of science.
26. The teacher of science knows that scientific explanations must be consistent with evidence, make accurate predictions, be logical, be open to criticism, and be public.
27. The teacher of science knows that scientific knowledge is tentative and subject to change as new evidence or new ways of thinking become available.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science is enthusiastic about learning and teaching science.
2. The teacher of science appreciates that some science concepts and processes are inappropriate at certain developmental levels. (Refer to Appendix G.)
3. The teacher of science values the learning of science concepts and processes in personally and socially relevant ways.
4. The teacher of science values the integration of all aspects of science content.
5. The teacher of science commits to focusing on fundamental science concepts. (Refer to Appendix G.)
6. The teacher of science appreciates the need to understand and develop scientific concepts through inquiry.
7. The teacher of science values science habits of the mind to make sense of ideas and events in the classroom and in his/her daily life. (Refer to Appendix E.)
8. The teacher of science is a lifelong learner who is curious and open to new ideas and concepts.
9. The teacher of science recognizes and values the contributions of scientists of both genders and all social and cultural groups in the development of scientific ideas.
10. The teacher of science appreciates that science takes place within a cultural and social context that influences the questions asked, the data collected, and the explanations developed.
11. The teacher of science recognizes that there are no absolute authorities in science, but that science is open to debate and discussion.
12. The teacher of science recognizes creativity and invention as important qualities for doing science.
13. The teacher of science appreciates the aesthetic value of science.
14. The teacher of science values technology.
Standard #2: The teacher of science understands how students learn science and provides science learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development.
Performances
1. The teacher of science engages students in actually doing science.
2. The teacher of science assesses individual differences in order to design instruction that meets learners' diverse intellectual, social, and personal development.
3. The teacher of science stimulates student reflection on prior knowledge and links new ideas to already familiar ideas, thereby making connections to students' experience, providing opportunities for active engagement, manipulation, and testing of ideas and materials, and encouraging students to assume responsibility for shaping their learning tasks.
4. The teacher of science assesses students' science conceptions through discussions, interviews, surveys, concept maps, etc., and uses findings as a basis for selecting instructional strategies.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands commonly held conceptions of students and how these may affect their learning.
2. The teacher of science understands how learning occurs -- how students construct scientific knowledge, acquire inquiry skills, and develop scientific habits of mind -- and knows how to use instructional strategies that promote student learning of science.
3. The teacher of science understands that students' intellectual, social, and personal development influences the learning of science and knows how to address these factors when making instructional decisions.
4. The teacher of science is aware of expected developmental progressions and ranges of individual variation within the students' intellectual, social, and personal development.
5. The teacher of science understands that students learn best when they experience things that are tangible and directly stimulate their senses --- visual, auditory, tactile, or kinesthetic.
6. The teacher of science understands that the direct sensory experiencing of phenomena are most easily understood when they occur in a way that is relevant to the learner.
7. The teacher of science understands that student difficulties in grasping abstractions are often masked by their ability to recite technical terms that they do not understand.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science enthusiastically embraces his/her role as an advocate of each student learning science.
2. The teacher of science appreciates each student as a unique individual who has equal value regardless of social, political, economic, ethnic, gender, religious, or intellectual differences.
3. The teacher of science believes that each student can learn and perform at high levels.
4. The teacher of science is interested in and sensitive to the students' science conceptions.
Standard #3: The teacher of science understands how students differ in their approaches to learning science and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.
Performances
1. The teacher of science makes students feel valued for their potential as people and helps them learn to value each other.
2. The teacher of science defers judgment about students and their motivations until a comprehensive analysis of the student is possible.
3. The teacher of science identifies and designs instruction appropriate to the students' stages of development, learning styles, strengths, and needs.
4. The teacher of science uses teaching approaches that are sensitive to the multiple experiences of learners and that address different learning and performance modes.
5. The teacher of science makes appropriate provisions for individual students who have particular learning differences or needs.
6. The teacher of science can identify when and how to access appropriate services or resources to meet the exceptional learning needs of students.
7. The teacher of science uses understandings of students' families, cultures, and communities as a basis for connecting instruction to the students' experiences.
8. The teacher of science models tolerance and respect for individual differences.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands and can identify differences in approaches to learning and performance, including different learning styles, multiple intelligences, and performance modes, and can adapt instruction to the needs of diverse learners.
2. The teacher of science knows about areas of exceptionality in learning, including learning disabilities, visual and perceptual difficulties, and special physical or mental challenges.
3. The teacher of science knows about the process of second language acquisition and about strategies to support the learning of students whose first language is not English.
4. The teacher of science understands how students' learning is influenced by individual experiences, talents, language, culture, family, and community values.
5. The teacher of science has a well-grounded framework for understanding cultural and community diversity and knows how to incorporate students' experiences, cultures, and community resources into instruction.
6. The teacher of science understands a wide range of cultural and social differences through direct involvement and the study of human interactions.
7. The teacher of science understands that behavior is most often a reflection of many factors.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science believes that all children can learn science.
2. The teacher of science respects the varied talents and perspectives of students.
3. The teacher of science recognizes that the importance of diversity among students is as important to the learning community as biodiversity is to the natural community.
4. The teacher of science is sensitive to the entire community and its individuals.
Standard #4: The teacher of science understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students' development of conceptual understanding, inquiry skills, and scientific habits of mind.
Performances
1. The teacher of science focuses inquiry primarily on real phenomena, in classrooms, outdoors, or in laboratory settings, where students are given investigations or guided toward fashioning investigations that are demanding but within their capabilities.
2. The teacher of science and the students often collaborate in the pursuit of ideas.
3. The teacher of science models and encourages the skills of scientific inquiry, as well as the curiosity, openness to new ideas, and skepticism that characterize science.
4. The teacher of science critically selects instructional strategies in order to achieve specific science learning goals and to meet individual student needs.
5. The teacher of science uses instructional strategies that engage students in scientific inquiry and that develop scientific habits of mind.
6. The teacher of science constantly monitors and adjusts teaching strategies in response to learner feedback.
7. The teacher of science uses a variety of representations and activities to help students make sense of science concepts.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands that inquiry into authentic questions generated from student experiences is the central strategy for teaching science.
2. The teacher of science understands the processes associated with scientific inquiry and how these processes can be developed.
3. The teacher of science understands that science is often a collaborative endeavor and that all science depends on the ultimate sharing and debating of ideas.
4. The teacher of science understands various teaching models and instructional strategies for helping students develop conceptual understandings.
5. The teacher of science recognizes the need for ongoing assessment of his/her teaching and of student learning in determining appropriate instructional strategies.
6. The teacher of science possesses a repertoire of activities and representations and understands their usefulness and limitations in helping students build conceptual understandings.
7. The teacher of science knows how to enhance learning through the use of a wide variety of materials as well as human and technological resources.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science believes in creating a learning community and working together with students as active learners.
2. The teacher of science believes that science instruction should develop students' conceptual understandings, inquiry skills, and science habits of the mind. (Refer to Appendix F)
3. The teacher of science recognizes that students need many different opportunities to make sense of science concepts and to develop inquiry skills and science habits of the mind.
Standard #5: The teacher of science uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create science learning environments that encourage positive social interaction and active engagement in learning.
Performances
1. The teacher of science creates a smoothly functioning learning community in which students assume responsibility for themselves and one another, participate in decision making, work collaboratively and independently, and engage in purposeful learning activities.
2. The teacher of science engages students in individual and cooperative learning activities that help them develop motivation to achieve by, for example, relating lessons to students' personal interests, allowing students to have choices in their learning, and leading students to ask questions and pursue problems that are meaningful to them.
3. The teacher of science organizes, allocates, and manages resources of time, space, activities, and attention to provide active and equitable engagement of students in productive tasks.
4. The teacher of science maximizes the amount of class time spent in learning by creating expectations and processes for communication and behavior along with a physical setting suitable to classroom goals.
5. The teacher of science helps the group to develop shared values and expectations for student interactions, academic discussions, and individual and group responsibility that create a positive classroom climate of openness, sensitivity, mutual respect, support, and inquiry.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands the dynamics of group behavior and strategies that create a science learning community in the classroom.
2. The teacher of science knows how to encourage both individual and group involvement in scientific inquiry.
3. The teacher of science knows how to guide students to establish group and individual goals in their learning of science.
4. The teacher of science understands the principles of classroom management and knows how to ensure that all students are purposefully involved in doing and learning science.
5. The teacher of science knows how to select appropriate science activities to engage all students in learning the central concepts and processes of science.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science acknowledges that the group learning process has to be nurtured by creating cohesive science learning groups in which every member is valued.
2. The teacher of science believes that by asking questions students will be motivated to find the answers to their questions.
3. The teacher of science believes that science is often a collaborative endeavor and that all science depends on the ultimate sharing and debating of ideas (scientific discourse).
4. The teacher of science values effective classroom management as a means of maintaining student focus.
5. The teacher of science believes in the importance of selecting science activities and teaching methods that respond to student diversity.
6. The teacher of science realizes that student involvement in the inquiry process will be strengthened if students have interest and involvement in the planning.
Standard #6: The teacher of science understands and uses a variety of communication techniques to foster equity, inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.
Performances
1. The teacher of science monitors his/her interactions with students to ensure equitable participation of all students in all facets of science instruction.
2. The teacher of science uses questioning and response strategies (e.g., productive questions, wait time) that encourage thinking and doing as opposed to merely recalling and reciting.
3. The teacher of science uses writing, drawing, and speaking in science to help students clarify their ideas, develop new ideas, and demonstrate understanding.
4. The teacher of science models effective scientific discourse, helps strengthen developmentally appropriate scientific discourse among students, and orchestrates discourse among students about scientific ideas.
5. The teacher of science uses a variety of resources and media communication tools, including the Internet, microcomputer-based laboratories, and audio-visual aides, to enrich science learning opportunities.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands how cultural and gender differences in communication can lead to differences in science learning.
2. The teacher of science knows questioning and response strategies (e.g., productive questions, wait time) that lead to thinking and doing rather than recalling and reciting.
3. The teacher of science understands that writing, drawing, and speaking can help students clarify their understandings, develop new understandings, and demonstrate their understanding.
4. The teacher of science understands how scientific discourse differs from everyday language and recognizes that students may not see the difference.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science recognizes the power of language for fostering equitable science learning opportunities and desires to develop equitable classroom communication.
2. The teacher of science values and encourages many modes of communication in the science class (e.g., discussion, telecommunications, writing and drawing, graphing, making models).
3. The teacher of science values listening to students to make sense of their conceptual understandings.
4. The teacher of science recognizes and appreciates the difficulty students have in distinguishing scientific discourse from everyday language.
Standard #7: The teacher of science plans meaningful science instruction based upon knowledge of science, students, the community, science curricula, and curriculum goals.
Performances
1. The teacher of science selects and creates learning experiences that are based upon principles of effective instruction and that are appropriate for curriculum goals and for students.
2. The teacher of science plans learning opportunities that recognize and address variation in learning styles and performance modes.
3. The teacher of science creates lessons and activities that will be useful at multiple levels to address the developmental and individual needs of diverse learners and adjust plans as needed to meet student needs and enhance learning.
4. The teacher of science plans science instruction that incorporates community issues, needs, and resources.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands science concepts, learning theory, the nature of science, science curricula, curriculum development, and student development and knows how to use this knowledge in planning instruction to meet curriculum goals.
2. The teacher of science is aware of the variety of curricula and resource materials and knows how to choose and use those materials with the greatest educational value.
3. The teacher of science is aware of the developmental level, aptitudes, interests, and needs of students and knows how to use this information to create effective learning experiences.
4. The teacher of science is aware of community issues, needs, and resources and knows how to use this knowledge to develop educational experiences relevant to his/her students.
5. The teacher of science is flexible and knows how to adjust instructional plans to address the changing needs of students.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science values both long-term and short-term planning.
2. The teacher of science believes that plans must always be open to revision to assure that they meet the needs of students and the community.
3. The teacher of science believes that plans for learning experiences should be developmentally appropriate.
4. The teacher of science values planning as a collegial activity.
Standard #8: The teacher of science understands and uses a variety of authentic and equitable assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and personal development of the learner.
Performances
1. The teacher of science uses science assessments that focus on all aspects of science achievement (e.g., ability to inquire, scientific understanding of the natural world, and understanding of the nature and utility of science).
2. The teacher of science monitors and modifies his/her own teaching strategies in relation to student success.
3. The teacher of science designs assessments that focus on students' knowledge, understandings, and reasoning.
4. The teacher of science uses both formal and informal assessment methods.
5. The teacher of science helps students develop skills in reflection by building a learning environment where students review their own and each other's work.
6. The teacher of science provides opportunities for students to have input into the assessment process.
7. The teacher of science designs assessments that are developmentally appropriate, contextually familiar to students, and free from bias.
8. The teacher of science maintains evidence of student performance that communicates student progress knowledgeably and responsibly to students, parents, and colleagues.
9. The teacher of science provides all students an opportunity to learn by differentiating the instruction to meet individual needs.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands the various methods for assessment of science learning (e.g., performance tasks, interviews, student presentations, computer simulations, writing science, observations, questions, and standard tests) and how assessment is linked to curriculum and instruction.
2. The teacher of science knows how to select, construct, and use a variety of assessment strategies and instruments appropriate to learning outcomes.
3. The teacher of science understands that the interactions of teachers and students concerning evaluation criteria help students understand the expectations for their work and give them experience in applying standards of scientific practice to their own and others' scientific endeavors. (p. 42 - National Science Standards)
4. The teacher of science understands measurement theory and assessment-related issues (e.g., validity, reliability, bias, and rubric development).
5. The teacher of science understands that students must be given an opportunity to learn science prior to assessing their learning.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science values the students' learning experiences.
2. The teacher of science believes that students are serious learners who can develop the responsibility for their own learning.
3. The teacher of science believes that ongoing assessment is essential to the instructional process.
4. The teacher of science recognizes that many different assessment strategies are necessary and essential for monitoring and promoting student learning.
5. The teacher of science realizes that science assessments should equitably measure what a student of science has an opportunity to learn, to do, and to know.
6. The teacher of science values the time and intellectual commitment necessary to conduct authentic assessment.
Standard #9: The teacher of science is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others, and who actively pursues opportunities to grow professionally.
Performances
1. The teacher of science uses classroom observation, information about students, and research as sources for evaluating the outcomes of teaching and learning and as a basis for experimenting with, reflecting on, and revising practice.
2. The teacher of science seeks out professional literature, colleagues, and other resources to support his/her own development as a learner and a teacher.
3. The teacher of science draws upon colleagues within the school and other professional arenas to support his/her professional development.
4. The teacher of science pursues professional development opportunities to access new scientific knowledge and instructional methods and to incorporate them into relevant learning situations for students.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science understands methods of inquiry that provide him/her with a variety of self-assessment and problem-solving strategies for reflecting on his/her practice, its influences on students' growth and learning, and the complex interactions between them.
2. The teacher of science is aware of major areas of research on science teaching and of resources available for professional learning (e.g., professional literature, colleagues, professional associations, professional development activities).
3. The teacher of science is aware that the body of knowledge in all fields of science is continually expanding.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science values critical thinking and self-directed learning as habits of mind.
2. The teacher of science commits to reflection, assessment, and learning as an ongoing process.
3. The teacher of science values working with colleagues to continually evaluate effectiveness and relevance in his/her teaching.
4. The teacher of science commits to seeking out, developing, and continually refining practices that address the individual needs of students.
5. The teacher of science recognizes his/her professional responsibility for engaging in and supporting appropriate professional practices for self and colleagues.
6. The teacher of science recognizes the importance of keeping abreast of new discoveries, research, and the constantly increasing knowledge in all fields of science.
Standard #10: In order to support student learning and well-being, the teacher of science fosters relationships with students and their families, colleagues, and concerned others.
Performances
1. The teacher of science involves the students, their families, and concerned others in establishing appropriate and relevant science learning goals.
2. The teacher of science utilizes a variety of community resources to promote students' awareness of how the knowledge of science can be applied to their own community.
3. The teacher of science collaborates with other professionals within and outside of their school community in order to expand science knowledge, learn more effective methods of teaching science, and gain insights into the needs of individual students.
4. The teacher of science talks with and listens to students and is sensitive and responsive to clues of distress and reports findings to appropriate people.
5. The teacher of science supports individuals, families, and communities by honoring their traditions, customs, and beliefs.
Knowledge
1. The teacher of science knows that in order to understand students, his/her relationship with students must extend beyond the classroom.
2. The teacher of science understands that establishing communication with students and their families will foster a strong unified support system for the science student.
3. The teacher of science knows that science teaching is connected and related to the resources and concerns of the community.
4. The teacher of science understands how factors in the students' environment outside of school may influence their lives and learning.
5. The teacher of science understands that collaboration with students, colleagues, and community influences learning.
6. The teacher of science is aware of student rights and the teacher's responsibility in upholding these rights.
Dispositions
1. The teacher of science is aware that open communication with science students and their families promotes mutual respect.
2. The teacher of science values all segments of the community (e.g., social and governmental agencies, community businesses, and community advocacy groups) to enhance the science learning environment.
3. The teacher of science values fellow professionals who are interested in improving the science learning environment.
4. The teacher of science values student input into the improvement of the science learning environment.
5. The teacher of science is an advocate for the student and is willing to support the right of each student to be safe, to be treated equitably, and to have an opportunity to learn.
6. The teacher of science respects the privacy of students and the confidentiality of information.
Appendix A (From: NRC, National Science Education Standards)
Developmental Level Content Requirements
All teachers of science must have a strong, broad base of scientific knowledge which is extensive enough for them to:
§ Understand the nature of scientific inquiry, its central role in science, and how to use the skills and processes of scientific inquiry.
§ Understand the fundamental facts and concepts in major science disciplines.
§ Be able to make conceptual connections within and across science disciplines, as well as to mathematics, technology, and other school subjects.
§ Use scientific understanding and ability when dealing with personal and societal issues.
This broad base is outlined in more detail in Appendices B, C, D, E, and F. While this breadth of knowledge is essential for all teachers, the depth of science content required varies according to the developmental level of the students.
Early childhood and middle childhood teachers are generalists who teach most, if not all, school subjects. A primary task for these teachers is to lay the experiential, conceptual, and attitudinal foundation for future learning in science by guiding students through a range of inquiry activities. To achieve this, early childhood and middle childhood teachers of science need to have the opportunity to develop a broad knowledge of science content in addition to some in-depth experiences in at least one science subject. Such in-depth experiences will allow teachers to develop an understanding of inquiry and the structure and production of science knowledge. That knowledge prepares teachers to guide student inquiries, appraise current student understanding, and further students' understanding of scientific ideas. Although thorough science knowledge in many areas would enhance the work of an early childhood and middle childhood teacher, it is more realistic to expect a generalist's knowledge.
Science curricula are organized in many different ways in the middle grades. Science experiences go into greater depth, are more quantitative, require more sophisticated reasoning skills, and use more sophisticated apparatus and technology. These requirements of the science courses change the character of the conceptual background required of early adolescent teachers of science. While maintaining a breadth of science knowledge, they need to develop greater depth of understanding than their colleagues teaching in earlier grades. An intensive, thorough study of at least one scientific discipline will help them meet the demands of their teaching and gain appreciation for how scientific knowledge is produced and how disciplines are structured.
For teachers of adolescent and young adult students, effective teachers of science possess broad knowledge of all disciplines and a deep understanding of all disciplines and a deep understanding of the scientific disciplines they teach. This implies being familiar enough with a science discipline to take part in research activities within that discipline.
Additionally, teachers of science at all levels must possess an understanding of what content is appropriate for students to master at certain levels, and what content is appropriate to be introduced at certain levels. Refer to Appendix G for more information.
Appendix B (From: NRC, National Science Education Standards)
The Unifying Concepts and Processes of Science
SYSTEMS, ORDER, AND ORGANIZATION
The natural and designed world is complex; it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. Scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigation. The units of investigation can be referred to as "systems." A system is an organized group of related objects or components that form a whole. Systems can consist, for example, of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, numbers, transportation, and education. Systems have boundaries, components, resources flow (input and output), and feedback.
The goal of this standard is to think and analyze in terms of systems. Thinking and analyzing in terms of systems will help students keep track of mass, energy, objects, organisms, and events referred to in the other content standards. The idea of simple systems encompasses subsystems as well as identifying the structure and function of systems, feedback and equilibrium, and the distinction between open and closed systems.
Science assumes that the behavior of the universe is not capricious, that nature is the same everywhere, and that it is understandable and predictable. Students can develop an understanding of regularities in systems, and by extension, the universe; they then can develop understanding of basic laws, theories, and models that explain the world.
Newton's laws of force and motion, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, conservation laws, Darwin's laws of natural selection, and chaos theory all exemplify the idea of order and regularity. An assumption of order establishes the basis for cause-effect relationships and predictability.
Prediction is the use of knowledge to identify and explain observations, or changes, in advance. The use of mathematics, especially probability, allows for greater or lesser certainty of predictions.
Order--the behavior of units of matter, objects, organisms, or events in the universe--can be described statistically. Probability is the relative certainty (or uncertainty) that individuals can assign to selected events happening (or not happening) in a specified space or time. In science, reduction of uncertainty occurs through such processes as the development of knowledge about factors influencing objects, organisms, systems, or events; better and more observations; and better explanatory models.
Types and levels of organization provide useful ways of thinking about the world. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of organisms. Physical systems can be described at different levels of organization--such as fundamental particles, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organization--for example, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, population, and communities. The complexity and number of fundamental units change in extended hierarchies of organization. Within these systems, interactions between components occur. Further, systems at different levels of organization can manifest different properties and functions.
EVIDENCE, MODELS, AND EXPLANATION
Evidence consists of observations and data on which to base scientific explanations. Using evidence to understand interactions allows individuals to predict changes in natural and designed systems.
Models are tentative schemes or structures that correspond to real objects, events, or classes of events, and that have explanatory power. Models help scientists and engineers understand how things work. Models take many forms, including physical objects, plans, mental constructs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations.
Scientific explanations incorporate existing scientific knowledge and new evidence from observations, experiments, or models into internally consistent, logical statements. Different terms, such as "hypothesis," "model," "law," "principle," "theory," and "paradigm" are used to describe various types of scientific explanations. As students develop and as they understand more science concepts and processes, their explanations should become more sophisticated. That is, their scientific explanations should more frequently include a rich scientific knowledge base, evidence of logic, higher levels of analysis, greater tolerance of criticism and uncertainty, and a clearer demonstration of the relationship between logic, evidence, and current knowledge.
CONSTANCY, CHANGE, AND MEASUREMENT
Although most things are in the process of becoming different--changing--some properties of objects and processes are characterized by constancy, including the speed of light, the charge of an electron, and the total mass plus energy in the universe. Changes might occur, for example, in properties of materials, position of objects, motion, and form and function of systems. Interactions within and among systems result in change. Changes vary in rate, scale, and pattern, including trends and cycles.
Energy can be transferred and matter can be changed. Nevertheless, when measured, the sum of energy and matter in systems, and by extension in the universe, remains the same.
Changes in systems can be quantified. Evidence for interactions and subsequent change and the formulation of scientific explanations are often clarified through quantitative distinctions--measurement. Mathematics is essential for accurately measuring change.
Different systems of measurement are used for different purposes. Scientists usually use the metric system. An important part of measurement is knowing when to use which system. For example, a meteorologist might use degrees Fahrenheit when reporting the weather to the public, but in writing scientific reports, the meteorologist would use degrees Celsius.
Scale includes understanding that the different characteristics, properties, or relationships within a system might change as its dimensions are increased or decreased.
Rate involves comparing one measured quantity with another measured quantity, for example, 60 meters per second. Rate is also a measure of change for a part relative to the whole, for example, change in birth rate as part of population growth.
EVOLUTION AND EQUILIBRIUM
Evolution is a series of changes, some gradual and some sporadic, that account for the present form and function of objects, organisms, and natural and designed systems. The general idea of evolution is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. Although evolution is most commonly associated with the biological theory explaining the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors, evolution also describes changes in the universe.
Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions: for example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible.
FORM AND FUNCTION
Form and function are complementary aspects of objects, organisms, and systems in the natural and designed world. The form or shape of an object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function. Function frequently relies on form. The understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Students should be able to explain function by referring to form, and to explain form by referring to function.
Appendix C (From: NRC, National Science Education Standards)
The Fundamental Concepts and Major Principles of Physical, Life, and Earth and Space Science
1) Physical Science
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
§ Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components. These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge. Each atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together.
§ The atom's nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than electrons. When an element has atoms that differ in the number of neutrons, these atoms are called different isotopes of the element.
§ The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.
§ Radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, emitting particles and/or wavelike radiation. The decay of any one nucleus cannot be predicted, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate. This predictability can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
§ Atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing electrons that are furthest from the nucleus. These outer electrons govern the chemical properties of the element.
§ An element is composed of a single type of atom. When elements are listed in order according to the number of protons (called the atomic number), repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties. This "Periodic Table" is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons and their permitted energies.
§ Bonds between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. A substance composed of a single kind of atom is called an element. The atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids. A compound is formed when two or more kinds of atoms bind together chemically.
§ The physical properties of compounds reflect the nature of the interactions among its molecules. These interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the constituent atoms and the distances and angles between them.
§ Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and therefore the energy that binds them together. In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart.
§ Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
§ Chemical reactions occur all around us, for example in health care, cooking, cosmetics, and automobiles. Complex chemical reactions involving carbon-based molecules take place constantly in every cell in our bodies.
§ Chemical reactions may release or consume energy. Some reactions such as the burning of fossil fuels release large amounts of energy by losing heat and by emitting light. Light can initiate many chemical reactions such as photosynthesis and the evolution of urban smog.
§ A large number of important reactions involve the transfer of either electrons (oxidation/reduction reactions) or hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) between reacting ions, molecules, or atoms. In other reactions, chemical bonds are broken by heat or light to form very reactive radicals with electrons ready to form new bonds. Radical reactions control many processes such as the presence of ozone and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the burning and processing of fossil fuels, the formation of polymers, and explosions.
§ Chemical reactions can take place in time periods ranging from the few femtoseconds (10-15seconds) required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical bond distance to geologic time (scales of billions of years). Reaction rates depend on how often the reacting atoms and molecules encounter one another, on the temperature, and on the properties--including shape--of the reacting species.
§ Catalysts, such as metal surfaces, accelerate chemical reactions. Chemical reactions in living systems are catalyzed by protein molecules called enzymes.
MOTIONS AND FORCES
§ Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force. Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.
§ Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
§ Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
§ The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
§ Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force. Most observable forces such as those exerted by a coiled spring or friction may be traced to electric forces acting between atoms and molecules.
§ Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electric forces. These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.
§
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND THE INCREASE IN DISORDER
§ The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, it can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
§ All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
§ Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
§ Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time. Thus, in all energy transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly. Examples are the transfer of energy from hotter to cooler objects by conduction, radiation, or convection and the warming of our surroundings when we burn fuels.
INTERACTIONS OF ENERGY AND MATTER
§ Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves, have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
§ Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
§ Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
§ In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.
2) Life Science
THE CELL
§ Cells have particular structures that underlie their functions. Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside world. Inside the cell is a concentrated mixture of thousands of different molecules which form a variety of specialized structures that carry out such cell functions as energy production, transport of molecules, waste disposal, synthesis of new molecules, and the storage of genetic material.
§ Most cell functions involve chemical reactions. Food molecules taken into cells react to provide the chemical constituents needed to synthesize other molecules. Both breakdown and synthesis are made possible by a large set of protein catalysts, called enzymes. The breakdown of some of the food molecules enables the cell to store energy in specific chemicals that are used to carry out the many functions of the cell.
§ Cells store and use information to guide their functions. The genetic information stored in DNA is used to direct the synthesis of the thousands of proteins that each cell requires.
§ Cell functions are regulated. Regulation occurs both through changes in the activity of the functions performed by proteins and through the selective expression of individual genes. This regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell growth and division.
§ Plant cells contain chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis. Plants and many microorganisms use solar energy to combine molecules of carbon dioxide and water into complex, energy rich organic compounds and release oxygen to the environment. This process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems.
§ Cells can differentiate, and complex multicellular organisms are formed as a highly organized arrangement of differentiated cells. In the development of these multicellular organisms, the progeny from a single cell form an embryo in which the cells multiply and differentiate to form the many specialized cells, tissues, and organs that comprise the final organism. This differentiation is regulated through the expression of different genes.
THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY
§ In all organisms, the instructions for specifying the characteristics of the organism are carried in DNA, a large polymer formed from subunits of four kinds (A, G, C, and T). The chemical and structural properties of DNA explain how the genetic information that underlies heredity is both encoded in genes (as a string of molecular "letters") and replicated (by a templating mechanism). Each DNA molecule in a cell forms a single chromosome.
§ Most of the cells in a human contain two copies of each of 22 different chromosomes. In addition, there is a pair of chromosomes that determines sex: a female contains two X chromosomes and a male contains one X and one Y chromosome. Transmission of genetic information to offspring occurs through egg and sperm cells that contain only one representative from each chromosome pair. An egg and a sperm unite to form a new individual. The fact that the human body is formed from cells that contain two copies of each chromosome--and therefore two copies of each gene--explains many features of human heredity, such as how variations that are hidden in one generation can be expressed in the next.
§ Changes in DNA (mutations) occur spontaneously at low rates. Some of these changes make no difference to the organism, whereas others can change cells and organisms. Only mutations in germ cells can create the variation that changes an organism's offspring.
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
§ Species evolve over time. Evolution is the consequence of the interactions of (1) the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (2) the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes, (3) a finite supply of the resources required for life, and (4) the ensuing selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive and leave offspring.
§ The great diversity of organisms is the result of more than 3.5 billion years of evolution that has filled every available niche with life forms.
§ Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record of ancient life forms, as well as for the striking molecular similarities observed among the diverse species of living organisms.
§ The millions of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live on earth today are related by descent from common ancestors.
§ Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities which reflect their evolutionary relationships. Species is the most fundamental unit of classification.
THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF ORGANISMS
§ The atoms and molecules on the earth cycle among the living and nonliving components of the biosphere.
§ Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction, from photosynthetic organisms to herbivores to carnivores and decomposers.
§ Organisms both cooperate and compete in ecosystems. The interrelationships and interdependencies of these organisms may generate ecosystems that are stable for hundreds or thousands of years.
§ Living organisms have the capacity to produce populations of infinite size, but environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension has profound effects on the interactions between organisms.
§ Human beings live within the world's ecosystems. Increasingly, humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Human destruction of habitats through direct harvesting, pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors is threatening current global stability, and if not addressed, ecosystems will be irreversibly affected.
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ORGANIZATION IN LIVING SYSTEMS
§ All matter tends toward more disorganized states. Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain their chemical and physical organizations. With death, and the cessation of energy input, living systems rapidly disintegrate.
§ The energy for life primarily derives from the sun. Plants capture energy by absorbing light and using it to form strong (covalent) chemical bonds between the atoms of carbon-containing (organic) molecules. These molecules can be used to assemble larger molecules with biological activity (including proteins, DNA, sugars, and fats). In addition, the energy stored in bonds between the atoms (chemical energy) can be used as sources of energy for life processes.
§ The chemical bonds of food molecules contain energy. Energy is released when the bonds of food molecules are broken and new compounds with lower energy bonds are formed. Cells usually store this energy temporarily in phosphate bonds of a small high-energy compound called ATP.
§ The complexity and organization of organisms accommodates the need for obtaining, transforming, transporting, releasing, and eliminating the matter and energy used to sustain the organism.
§ The distribution and abundance of organisms and populations in ecosystems are limited by the availability of matter and energy and the ability of the ecosystem to recycle materials.
§ As matter and energy flows through different levels of organization of living systems--cells, organs, organisms, communities--and between living systems and the physical environment, chemical elements are recombined in different ways. Each recombination results in storage and dissipation of energy into the environment as heat. Matter and energy are conserved in each change.
THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANISMS
§ Multicellular animals have nervous systems that generate behavior. Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.
§ Organisms have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli. Responses to external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism's own species and others, as well as environmental changes; these responses either can be innate or learned. The broad patterns of behavior exhibited by animals have evolved to ensure reproductive success. Animals often live in unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with uncertainty and change. Plants also respond to stimuli.
§ Like other aspects of an organism's biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection. Behaviors often have an adaptive logic when viewed in terms of evolutionary principles.
§ Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology, and anthropology.
3) Earth and Space Science
ENERGY IN THE EARTH SYSTEM
§ Earth systems have internal and external sources of energy, both of which create heat. The sun is the major external source of energy. Two primary sources of internal energy are the decay of radioactive isotopes and the gravitational energy from the earth's original formation.
§ The outward transfer of earth's internal heat drives convection circulation in the mantle that propels the plates comprising earth's surface across the face of the globe.
§ Heating of earth's surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents.
§ Global climate is determined by energy transfer from the sun at and near the earth's surface. This energy transfer is influenced by dynamic processes such as cloud cover and the earth's rotation, and static conditions such as the position of mountain ranges and oceans.
GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
§ The earth is a system containing essentially a fixed amount of each stable chemical atom or element. Each element can exist in several different chemical reservoirs. Each element on earth moves among reservoirs in the solid earth, oceans, atmosphere, and organisms as part of geochemical cycles.
§ Movement of matter between reservoirs is driven by the earth's internal and external sources of energy. These movements are often accompanied by a change in the physical and chemical properties of the matter. Carbon, for example, occurs in carbonate rocks such as limestone, in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas, in water as dissolved carbon dioxide, and in all organisms as complex molecules that control the chemistry of life.
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH SYSTEM
§ The sun, the earth, and the rest of the solar system formed from a nebular cloud of dust and gas 4.6 billion years ago. The early earth was very different from the planet we live on today.
§ Geologic time can be estimated by observing rock sequences and using fossils to correlate the sequences at various locations. Current methods include using the known decay rates of radioactive isotopes present in rocks to measure the time since the rock was formed.
§ Interactions among the solid earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, and organisms have resulted in the ongoing evolution of the earth system. We can observe some changes such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on a human time scale, but many processes such as mountain building and plate movements take place over hundreds of millions of years.
§ Evidence for one-celled forms of life--the bacteria--extends back more than 3.5 billion years. The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of the earth's atmosphere, which did not originally contain oxygen.
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE
§ The origin of the universe remains one of the greatest questions in science. The "big bang" theory places the origin between 10 and 20 billion years ago, when the universe began in a hot dense state; according to this theory, the universe has been expanding ever since.
§ Early in the history of the universe, matter, primarily the light atoms hydrogen and helium, clumped together by gravitational attraction to form countless trillions of stars. Billions of galaxies, each of which is a gravitationally bound cluster of billions of stars, now form most of the visible mass in the universe.
§ Stars produce energy from nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. These and other processes in stars have led to the formation of all the other elements.
4) Chemistry
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
§ Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components. These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge. Each atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together.
§ The atom's nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than electrons. When an element has atoms that differ in the number of neutrons, these atoms are called different isotopes of the element.
§ The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
§ Atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing electrons that are furthest from the nucleus. These outer electrons govern the chemical properties of the element.
§ An element is composed of a single type of atom. When elements are listed in order according to the number of protons (called the atomic number), repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties. This "Periodic Table" is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons and their permitted energies.
§ Bonds between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. A substance composed of a single kind of atom is called an element. The atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids. A compound is formed when two or more kinds of atoms bind together chemically.
§ The physical properties of compounds reflect the nature of the interactions among its molecules. These interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the constituent atoms and the distances and angles between them.
§ Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and therefore the energy that binds them together. In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart.
§ Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.
§ Organic chemistry can be described by the structure and chemical properties of hydrocarbons, functional groups and other carbon containing compounds.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
§ Chemical reactions occur all around us, for example in health care, cooking, cosmetics, and automobiles. Complex chemical reactions involving carbon-based molecules take place constantly in every cell in our bodies.
§ Chemical reactions may release or consume energy. Some reactions such as the burning of fossil fuels release large amounts of energy by losing heat and by emitting light. Light can initiate many chemical reactions such as photosynthesis and the evolution of urban smog.
§ A large number of important reactions involve the transfer of either electrons (oxidation/reduction reactions) or hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) between reacting ions, molecules, or atoms. In other reactions, chemical bonds are broken by heat or light to form very reactive radicals with electrons ready to form new bonds. Radical reactions control many processes such as the presence of ozone and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the burning and processing of fossil fuels, the formation of polymers, and explosions.
§ Chemical reactions can take place in time periods ranging from the few femtoseconds (10-15seconds) required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical bond distance to geologic time (scales of billions of years). Reaction rates depend on how often the reacting atoms and molecules encounter one another, on the temperature, and on the properties--including shape--of the reacting species.
§ Catalysts, such as metal surfaces, accelerate chemical reactions. Chemical reactions in living systems are catalyzed by protein molecules called enzymes.
§ Stoichiometric calculations are used to predict limiting reactants, and amount of products and reactants in chemical reactions.
§ Laboratory safety requires current knowledge of potential hazards, including those related to chemical compounds, their interactions and appropriate laboratory equipment.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND THE INCREASE IN DISORDER
§ The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, it can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
§ All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
§ Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
INTERACTIONS OF ENERGY AND MATTER
§ Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves, have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
§ Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
§ Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
§ In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.
5) Physics
MEASUREMENT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
- Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components. These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge.
- Objects can be described in terms of six observable and measurable quantities: mass, charge, pressure, volume, temperature, and density. Appropriate laboratory tools and instruments can be used to measure or determine these quantities for a given sample.
- The measurable physical quantities of an object and interactions with its surroundings must be described using correct and appropriate units. The base (fundamental) units in the metric (SI) system are the kilogram, second, meter, Kelvin, candela, Ampere, and mole. Other quantities used in physical descriptions use derived units that are combinations of base units.
- Measurements differ in their precision and accuracy, but all measurement involves uncertainty.
MOTION, AND MECHANICS
- Both scalar (physical measurements that do not involve direction) and vector (physical measurements that depend on direction) quantities are needed to fully describe and measure motion.
- The linear motion of an object can be described using the equations of motion known as kinematic equations. These equations can be applied for motion occurring in one, two, or three dimensions. An understanding of vectors and simple vector calculations are needed for describing two- and three- dimensional (including circular) motion.
- Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force. Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.
- Newton’s Laws and the kinematics equations can be combined to describe and predict the motion of an object.
- Gravitation is a universal force that any mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Because the gravitational force can act at a distance, it is known as a field force.
- The forces acting in a system can be used to determine the work involved. Work performed on or by a system is a measure of the energy provided to or by the system. The measure of work or energy per time is power. These concepts can be applied to mechanical, electromagnetic, and nuclear forces.
- Energy is a unifying concept in the study of physics. Energy can exist in various manifestations including kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical, nuclear, and electromagnetic. The law of conservation of energy holds that the total energy of a system must remain constant; energy in the system can be transferred from one form to another.
- The momentum of a system in motion is the product of the mass and the velocity. The total vector momentum of a system is always conserved.
- Newton’s Laws, conservation of energy, and conservation of momentum are also used to analyze rotational motion.
- Rotational mechanics is described by quantities and formulas that are analogous to rectilinear counterparts. The conservation of angular momentum is particularly useful in describing a wide range of natural and engineered phenomena.
- Fluid statics and fluid dynamics are summarized using the concepts of Pascal, Archimedes, and Bernoulli.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND THE INCREASE IN DISORDER
· The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, energy can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
· All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
· The kinetic molecular theory describes thermal energy as random motion and vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
· Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time. Thus, in all energy transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly. Examples are the transfer of energy from hotter to cooler objects by conduction, radiation, or convection and the warming of our surroundings when we burn fuels.
· The laws of thermodynamics explain and predict the behavior of most thermal systems.
- Atomic interaction of particles are responsible for macroscopic thermal properties of materials such as heat capacity, thermal expansion, thermal conduction, etc.
OSCILLATIONS AND THE BEHAVIOR OF WAVES
- Simple harmonic motions are caused by a restoring force proportional to the displacement from equilibrium and can be described by sine or cosine graphs. Simple pendulums and masses on springs are common applications of systems that can be described or approximated by simple harmonic motion.
- Waves, including waves on water, sound, and light waves, transfer energy when they interact with matter.
- The behavior of waves can be described by reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, polarization, dispersion, transmission, and absorption.
- The perceptions and properties associated with sound and light are determined by the characteristics of the waves that carry them.
- The concepts of wave motions can be used to predict both conceptually and quantitatively the behavior of simple optical systems.
THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
- All electric and magnetic phenomena are caused by the presence or motion of charge.
- The electrical force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
- Coulomb’s Law and the concepts of field forces and potential energy can be used to explain electrostatic effects. Between any two charges, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force.
- Ohm’s Law and Watt’s Law can be used to explain the behavior of simple circuits. These laws in combination with Kirchhoff’s laws can be used to analyze series and parallel circuits.
- A moving charge creates magnetic effects and experiences a force if it moves through an external magnetic field.
- Ampere’s Law and Faraday’s Law can be used to explain the operation of motors and generators.
- Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.
- In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.
ATOMIC AND SUBATOMIC PHYSICS
- Almost all of the mass of an atom is contained in the protons and neutrons in the nucleus, while the electrons in their orbits determine the size of the atom. The atom can be thought of as mainly empty space
- The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
- A strong nuclear force overcomes Coulomb repulsion in stable nuclei. The degree of stability is expressed as the average binding energy per nucleon.
- Radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions. Some nuclei that are unstable decay by releasing alpha, beta, or gamma emissions to form more stable daughter nuclei. The speed with which these processes proceed can be described by decay rates and half lives.
- Because midsize nuclei are the most stable, both fusion of light nuclei or fission of large nuclei can release energy. The amount of energy released per particle involved is much greater for nuclear changes than for chemical or physical changes
HISTORICAL PESPECTIVE
The development of the understanding of physics has been a global academic pursuit over the course of many centuries. This sequential development has depended on the work of early astronomers, the contributions of Galileo and Newton in mechanics, the work of Ampere, Faraday, and Maxwell in electromagnetism, the numerous contributions of Einstein in the transition to modern physics, the contributions of Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr in atomic physics, the discoveries of Curie, Meitner, and Fermi in nuclear physics, and many others.
Appendix D (From: NRC, National Science Education Standards)
Science and Technology
ABILITIES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DESIGN
IDENTIFY A PROBLEM OR DESIGN AN OPPORTUNITY
Students should be able to identify new problems or needs and to change and improve current technological designs.
PROPOSE DESIGNS AND CHOOSE BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Students should demonstrate thoughtful planning for a piece of technology or technique. Students should be introduced to the roles of models and simulations in these processes.
IMPLEMENT A PROPOSED SOLUTION
A variety of skills can be needed in proposing a solution depending on the type of technology that is involved. The construction of artifacts can require the skills of cutting, shaping, treating, and joining common materials--such as wood, metal, plastics, and textiles. Solutions can also be implemented using computer software.
EVALUATE THE SOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Students should test any solution against the needs and criteria it was designed to meet. At this stage, new criteria not originally considered may be reviewed.
COMMUNICATE THE PROBLEM, PROCESS, AND SOLUTION
Students should present their results to students, teachers, and others in a variety of ways, such as orally, in writing, and in other forms--including models, diagrams, and demonstrations.
UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
§ Scientists in different disciplines ask different questions, use different methods of investigation, and accept different types of evidence to support their explanations. Many scientific investigations require the contributions of individuals from different disciplines, including engineering. New disciplines of science, such as geophysics and biochemistry, often emerge at the interface of two older disciplines.
§ Science often advances with the introduction of new technologies. Solving technological problems often results in new scientific knowledge. New technologies often extend the current levels of scientific understanding and introduce new areas of research.
§ Creativity, imagination, and a good knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.
§ Science and technology are pursued for different purposes. Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world, and technological design is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems. Technology, by its nature, has a more direct effect on society than science because its purpose is to solve human problems, help humans adapt, and fulfill human aspirations. Technological solutions may create new problems. Science, by its nature, answers questions that may or may not directly influence humans. Sometimes scientific advances challenge people's beliefs and practical explanations concerning various aspects of the world.
§ Technological knowledge is often not made public because of patents and the financial potential of the idea or invention. Scientific knowledge is made public through presentations at professional meetings and publications in scientific journals.
UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT LABORATORY MANAGEMENT
§ Scientists understand Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) rules and regulations and how they apply in the science laboratory.
§ Scientists know and apply the necessary safety regulations in the storage, use and care of the materials used in the laboratory.
§ Scientists adhere to the safety rules and guidelines established by the national organizations, as well as local and state regulatory agencies.
§ Implementation and use of safety guidelines, including the use of appropriate safety equipment are critical components of scientific inquiry.
Appendix E (From: NRC, National Science Education Standards)
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
PERSONAL AND COMMUNITY HEALTH
§ Hazards and the potential for accidents exist. Regardless of the environment, the possibility of injury, illness, disability, or death may be present. Humans have a variety of mechanisms--sensory, motor, emotional, social, and technological--that can reduce and modify hazards.
§ The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the disease-producing organism. Many diseases can be prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, result form specific body dysfunctions and cannot be transmitted.
§ Personal choice concerning fitness and health involves multiple factors. Personal goals, peer and social pressures, ethnic and religious beliefs, and understanding of biological consequences can all influence decisions about health practices.
§ An individual's mood and behavior may be modified by substances. The modification may be beneficial or detrimental depending on the motives, type of substance, duration of use, pattern of use, level of influence, and short- and long-term effects. Students should understand that drugs can result in physical dependence and can increase the risk of injury, accidents, and death.
§ Selection of foods and eating patterns determine nutritional balance. Nutritional balance has a direct effect on growth and development and personal well-being. Personal and social factors--such as habits, family income, ethnic heritage, body size, advertising, and peer pressure--influence nutritional choices.
§ Families serve basic health needs, especially for young children. Regardless of the family structure, individuals have families that involve a variety of physical, mental, and social relationships that influence the maintenance and improvement of health.
§ Sexuality is basic to the physical, mental, and social development of humans. Students should understand that human sexuality involves biological functions, psychological motives, and cultural, ethnic, religious, and technological influences. Sex is a basic and powerful force that has consequences to individuals' health and to society. Students should understand various methods of controlling the reproduction process and that each method has a different type of effectiveness and different health and social consequences.
POPULATION GROWTH
§ Populations grow or decline through the combined effects of births and deaths, and through emigration and immigration. Populations can increase through linear or exponential growth, with effects on resource use and environmental pollution.
§ Various factors influence birth rates and fertility rates, such as average levels of affluence and education, importance of children in the labor force, education and employment of women, infant mortality rates, costs of raising children, availability and reliability of birth control methods, and religious beliefs and cultural norms that influence personal decisions about family size.
§ Populations can reach limits to growth. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that can be supported in a given environment. The limitation is not the availability of space, but the number of people in relation to resources and the capacity of earth systems to support human beings. Changes in technology can cause significant changes, either positive or negative, in carrying capacity.
NATURAL RESOURCES
§ Human populations use resources in the environment in order to maintain and improve their existence. Natural resources have been and will continue to be used to maintain human populations.
§ The earth does not have infinite resources; increasing human consumption places severe stress on the natural processes that renew some resources, and it depletes those resources that cannot be renewed.
§ Humans use many natural systems as resources. Natural systems have the capacity to reuse waste, but that capacity is limited. Natural systems can change to an extent that exceeds the limits of organisms to adapt naturally or humans to adapt technologically.
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
§ Natural ecosystems provide an array of basic processes that affect humans. Those processes include maintenance of the quality of the atmosphere, generation of soils, control of the hydrologic cycle, disposal of wastes, and recycling of nutrients. Humans are changing many of these basic processes, and the changes may be detrimental to humans.
§ Materials from human societies affect both physical and chemical cycles of the earth.
§ Many factors influence environmental quality. Factors that students might investigate include population growth, resource use, population distribution, over consumption, the capacity of technology to solve problems, poverty, the role of economic, political, and religious views, and the different ways humans view the earth.
NATURAL AND HUMAN-INDUCED HAZARDS
§ Normal adjustments of earth may be hazardous for humans. Humans live at the interface between the atmosphere driven by solar energy and the upper mantle where convection creates changes in the earth's solid crust. As societies have grown, become stable, and come to value aspects of the environment, vulnerability to natural processes of change has increased.
§ Human activities can enhance potential for hazards. Acquisition of resources, urban growth, and waste disposal can accelerate rates of natural change.
§ Some hazards, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and severe weather, are rapid and spectacular. But there are slow and progressive changes that also result in problems for individuals and societies. For example, change in stream channel position, erosion of bridge foundations, sedimentation in lakes and harbors, coastal erosions, and continuing erosion and wasting of soil and landscapes can all negatively affect society.
§ Natural and human-induced hazards present the need for humans to assess potential danger and risk. Many changes in the environment designed by humans bring benefits to society, as well as cause risks. Students should understand the costs and trade-offs of various hazards--ranging from those with minor risk to a few people to major catastrophes with major risk to many people. The scale of events and the accuracy with which scientists and engineers can (and cannot) predict events are important considerations.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND GLOBAL CHALLENGES
§ Science and technology are essential social enterprises, but alone they can only indicate what can happen, not what should happen. The latter involves human decisions about the use of knowledge.
§ Understanding basic concepts and principles of science and technology should precede active debate about the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of various science- and technology-related challenges. However, understanding science alone will not resolve local, national, or global challenges.
§ Progress in science and technology can be affected by social issues and challenges. Funding priorities for specific health problems serve as examples of ways that social issues influence science and technology.
§ Individuals and society must decide on proposals involving new research and the introduction of new technologies into society. Decisions involve assessment of alternatives, risks, costs, and benefits and consideration of who benefits and who suffers, who pays and gains, and what the risks are and who bears them. Students should understand the appropriateness and value of basic questions--"What can happen?"--"What are the odds?"--and "How do scientists and engineers know what will happen?"
§ Humans have a major effect on other species. For example, the influence of humans on other organisms occurs through land use--which decreases space available to other species--and pollution--which changes the chemical composition of air, soil, and water.
Appendix F
Science Habits of Mind
The term habits of mind refers to those values, attitudes, and skills that relate to a person's knowledge and learning and ways of thinking about science. The teachers of science should nurture science habits of mind among students by:
Values and Attitudes in Science
§ helping people qualitatively and quantitatively and make sense of their natural world.
§ fostering the attitudes of curiosity, openness to new ideas, and informed skepticism.
§ developing positive attitudes about science.
Estimation and Computation Skills
§ including the use of estimation skills to have a sense of what an adequate degree of precision is in a particular situation and an understanding of the purpose of the calculation.
§ providing experience with basic number skills and computations in meaningful contexts.
§ including an understanding and appropriate use of the calculator.
Manipulation and Observation Skills
§ providing opportunities to handle common materials and tools for dealing with household and everyday technologies and appropriate scientific laboratory equipment for making careful observations, and for handling information which might include:
Keeping a science journal for observations.
Entering, storing, and retrieving computer information.
Using appropriate instruments to make measurements of length, volume, weight, time interval, and temperature.
Taking readings from standard meter displays.
Communication Skills
§ providing opportunities to communicate ideas and share information with accuracy and clarity and to read and listen with understanding.
Critical-Response Skills
§ allowing students to respond to scientific assertions and arguments critically, deciding what to pay attention and what to ignore.
§ allowing students to apply those same critical skills to their own observations, arguments, and conclusions.
Appendix G
Developmentally Appropriate Content
As this document defines the knowledge, dispositions, and performances expected of Indiana teachers of science, the Indiana Academic Standards define what students are to know and be able to do in science. By defining the skills and knowledge base expected of students at the Kindergarten/Primary, the Upper Elementary/Intermediate, the Middle/Junior High, and the High School grades, the Indiana Academic Standards make explicit what understandings and skills in science are appropriate for students at certain developmental levels.
By using the Indiana Academic Standards to guide his or her understanding of what students can master at certain levels, the teacher of science will know what subject matter should be introduced at a particular level, and what portion of that subject matter can be mastered at a particular level. Specifically this means:
§ The early childhood teacher will be working to ensure that students master the standards defined for the Kindergarten/Primary grades while working to introduce some or many of the ideas that students will be expected to master at the Upper Elementary/Intermediate grades.
§ The middle childhood teacher will be working to ensure that students master the standards defined for the Upper Elementary/Intermediate grades while working to introduce some or many of the ideas that students will be expected to master at the Middle/Junior High grades.
§ The early adolescent teacher will be working to ensure that students master the standards defined for the Middle/Junior High grades while working to introduce some or many of the ideas that students will be expected to master at the High School level.
§ The adolescent and young adult teacher will be working to ensure that students master the standards defined for the High School grades while working to introduce some or many of the ideas that students will be expected to master in post-secondary studies.
Through this process, the teacher will be part of a larger curriculum process that provides continuity in how skills and concepts are being taught. Without this continuity, a school system cannot ensure that students are being exposed to subject matter which is appropriate for their developmental level, thereby setting students up for failure before they even begin. The teacher of science should be committed to being part of a system where students have the opportunity to learn content that builds upon what they already know and prepares the foundation for what they will learn in the future.
